In category theory, a branch of mathematics, the functors between two given categories can themselves be turned into a category; the morphisms in this functor category are natural transformations between functors. Functor categories are of interest for two main reasons:
many commonly occurring categories are (disguised) functor categories, so any statement proved for general functor categories is widely applicable;
every category embeds in a functor category (via the Yoneda embedding); the functor category often has nicer properties than the original category, allowing certain operations that were not available in the original setting.
An element of a functor category is sometimes called a diagram.
Contents
1Definition
2Examples
3Facts
4See also
5References
Definition
Suppose C is a small category (i.e. the objects form a set rather than a proper class) and D is an arbitrary category. The category of functors fromC to D, written as Funct(C,D) or DC, has as objects the covariant functors from C to D, and as morphisms the natural transformations between such functors. Note that natural transformations can be composed: if ?(X) : F(X) ? G(X) is a natural transformation from the functor F : C ? D to the functor G : C ? D, and ?(X) : G(X) ? H(X) is a natural transformation from the functor G to the functorH, then the collection ?(X)?(X) : F(X) ? H(X) defines a natural transformation from F to H. With this composition of natural transformations (known as vertical composition, see natural transformation), DC satisfies the axioms of a category.
In a completely analogous way, one can also consider the category of all contravariant functors from C to D; we write this as Funct(Cop,D).
If C and D are both preadditive categories (i.e. their morphism sets are abelian groups and the composition of morphisms is bilinear), then we can consider the category of all additive functors from C to D, denoted by Add(C,D).
Examples
If I is a small discrete category (i.e. its only morphisms are the identity morphisms), then a functor from I to C essentially consists of a family of objects of C, indexed by I; the functor category CI can be identified with the corresponding product category: its elements are families of objects in C and its morphisms are families of morphisms in C.
A directed graph consists of a set of arrows and a set of vertices, and two functions from the arrow set to the vertex set, specifying each arrow’s start and end vertex. The category of all directed graphs is thus nothing but the functor category SetC, where C is the category with two objects connected by two morphisms, and Set denotes the category of sets.
Any group G can be considered as a one-object category in which every morphism is invertible. The category of all G-sets is the same as the functor category SetG.
Similar to the previous example, the category of k-linear representations of the group G is the same as the functor category k-VectG (where k-Vect denotes the category of all vector spaces over the field k).
Any ring R can be considered as a one-object preadditive category; the category of left modules over R is the same as the additive functor category Add(R,Ab) (where Ab denotes the category of abelian groups), and the category of right R-modules is Add(Rop,Ab). Because of this example, for any preadditive category C, the category Add(C,Ab) is sometimes called the “category of left modules over C” and Add(Cop,Ab) is the category of right modules over C.
The category of presheaves on a topological space X is a functor category: we turn the topological space into a category C having the open sets in X as objects and a single morphism from U to V if and only if U is contained in V. The category of presheaves of sets (abelian groups, rings) on X is then the same as the category of contravariant functors from C to Set (or Ab or Ring). Because of this example, the category Funct(Cop, Set) is sometimes called the “category of presheaves of sets on C” even for general categories C not arising from a topological space. To define sheaves on a general category C, one needs more structure: a Grothendieck topology on C. (Some authors refer to categories that are equivalent to SetC as presheaf categories.)
Facts
Most constructions that can be carried out in D can also be carried out in DC by performing them “componentwise”, separately for each object in C. For instance, if any two objects X and Y in D have a product X×Y, then any two functors F and G in DC have a product F×G, defined by (F×G)(c) = F(c)×G(c) for every object c in C. Similarly, if ?c : F(c)?G(c) is a natural transformation and each ?c has a kernel Kc in the category D, then the kernel of ? in the functor category DC is the functor K with K(c) = Kc for every object c in C.
As a consequence we have the general rule of thumb that the functor category DC shares most of the “nice” properties of D:
if D is complete (or cocomplete), then so is DC;
if D is an abelian category, then so is DC;
We also have:
if C is any small category, then the category SetC of presheaves is a topos.
So from the above examples, we can conclude right away that the categories of directed graphs, G-sets and presheaves on a topological space are all complete and cocomplete topoi, and that the categories of representations of G, modules over the ring R, and presheaves of abelian groups on a topological space X are all abelian, complete and cocomplete.
The embedding of the category C in a functor category that was mentioned earlier uses the Yoneda lemma as its main tool. For every object X of C, let Hom(-,X) be the contravariant representable functor from C to Set. The Yoneda lemma states that the assignment
is a full embedding of the category C into the category Funct(Cop,Set). So C naturally sits inside a topos.
The same can be carried out for any preadditive category C: Yoneda then yields a full embedding of C into the functor category Add(Cop,Ab). So C naturally sits inside an abelian category.
The intuition mentioned above (that constructions that can be carried out in D can be “lifted” to DC) can be made precise in several ways; the most succinct formulation uses the language of adjoint functors. Every functor F : D ? E induces a functor FC : DC ? EC (by composition with F). If F and G is a pair of adjoint functors, then FC and GC is also a pair of adjoint functors.
The functor category DC has all the formal properties of an exponential object; in particular the functors from E × C ? D stand in a natural one-to-one correspondence with the functors from E to DC. The category Cat of all small categories with functors as morphisms is therefore a cartesian closed category.
(Redirected from Euroleague 2004-05)
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The Euroleague is an international basketball club competition for elite clubs throughout Europe. The 2004-2005 season featured 24 competing teams from 13 different countries. The final of the competition was held in Olimpiisky Arena, Moscow, Russia, with defending champions Maccabi Tel Aviv defeating TAU Cerámica 90-78.
Contents
1Format
1.1Regular season
1.2Top 16
1.3Quarterfinals
1.4Final Four
2Regular Season
2.1Group A
2.2Group B
2.3Group C
3Top 16
3.1Group D
3.2Group E
3.3Group F
3.4Group G
4Quarterfinals
4.1Quarterfinal 1
4.2Quarterfinal 2
4.3Quarterfinal 3
4.4Quarterfinal 4
5Final Four
5.1Semifinals
5.1.1Semifinal 1
5.1.2Semifinal 2
5.2Third Place
5.3Final
6Awards
6.1Regular Season MVP
6.2Final Four MVP
6.3All-Euroleague First Team 2004-05
6.4All-Euroleague Second Team 2004-2005
6.5Rising Star
6.6Best Defender
6.7Alphonso Ford Top Scorer
6.8Alexander Gomelsky Coach of the Year
6.9Club Executive of the Year
7Notes and references
8External links
Format
Regular season
The first phase is a regular season, in which the competing teams are drawn into three groups, each containing eight teams. Each team plays every other team in its group at home and away, resulting in 14 games for each team in the first stage. The top 5 teams in each group and the best sixth-placed team advance to the next round. The complete list of tiebreakers is provided in the lead-in to the Regular Season results.
Top 16
The surviving teams are divided into four groups of four teams each, and again a round robin system is adopted resulting in 6 games each, with the top 2 teams advancing to the quarterfinals. Tiebreakers are identical to those used in the Regular Season.
Quarterfinals
This was the first season in which the Euroleague instituted a quarterfinal phase. The top placed teams from each Top 16 group played second-placed teams from a different group in a best-of-three playoff series, with the winners of those series advancing to the Final Four.
Final Four
The culminating stage of the Euroleague in which the four remaining teams play a semifinal match and the winners of those advance to the final. The losers play in a third-place playoff. The team which is victorious in the Final will be Euroleague champion.
Regular Season
Key to colors
Top five places in each group, plus highest-ranked sixth-place team,
advance to Top 16
Eliminated
Tiebreakers:
Head-to-head record in matches between the tied clubs
Overall point difference in games between the tied clubs
Overall point difference in all group matches (first tiebreaker if tied clubs are not in the same group)
Points scored in all group matches
Sum of quotients of points scored and points allowed in each group match
Group A
Main article: Euroleague 2004-05 Regular Season Group A
Team
Pld
W
L
PF
PA
Diff
1.
Climamio Bologna
14
12
2
1199
11036
96
2.
Efes Pilsen
14
12
2
1080
934
145
3.
Cibona Zagreb
14
8
6
1172
1037
47
4.
Real Madrid
14
7
7
1056
1020
36
5.
Prokom Trefl Sopot
14
7
7
981
1028
-47
6.
Estudiantes Madrid
14
4
10
1074
1109
-35
7.
Olympiacos
14
4
10
1017
1144
-127
8.
Partizan Belgrade
14
2
12
1030
1146
-116
Group B
Main article: Euroleague 2004-05 Regular Season Group B
Team
Pld
W
L
PF
PA
Diff
1.
Maccabi Tel Aviv
14
10
4
1324
1189
135
2.
FC Barcelona
14
9
5
1071
1045
26
3.
Žalgiris Kaunas
14
8
6
1185
1180
5
4.
AEK Athens
14
7
7
1102
1106
-4
5.
Montepaschi Siena
14
7
7
1105
1049
56
6.
Scavolini Pesaro
14
7
7
1116
1168
-52
7.
Olimpija Ljubljana
14
6
8
1040
1058
-18
8.
ASVEL Villeurbanne
14
2
12
973
1121
-148
Group C
Main article: Euroleague 2004-05 Regular Season Group C
Team
Pld
W
L
PF
PA
Diff
1.
CSKA Moscow
14
14
0
1191
1074
117
2.
Panathinaikos
14
8
6
1126
1061
65
3.
Benetton Treviso
14
8
6
1039
986
53
4.
Ülkerspor
14
7
7
1030
987
43
5.
TAU Cerámica
14
6
8
1149
1146
3
6.
Unicaja Málaga
14
6
8
1030
1024
6
7.
Frankfurt Skyliners
14
4
10
996
1137
-141
8.
Pau-Orthez
14
3
11
1070
1216
-146
Top 16
The draw was held in accordance with Euroleague rules.
The teams were placed into four pools, as follows:
Level 1: The three group winners, plus the top-ranked second-place team
CSKA, Climamio, Maccabi, Efes Pilsen
Level 2: The remaining second-place teams, plus the top two third-place teams
Winterthur FCB, Panathinaikos ,Benetton , Cibona
Level 3: The remaining third-place team, plus the three fourth-place teams
Žalgiris, Ülker Istanbul, Real Madrid ,AEK Athens
Level 4: The fifth-place teams, plus the top ranked sixth-place team
TAU Cerámica, Montepaschi Siena, Prokom Trefl Sopot, Scavolini Pesaro
Each Top 16 group included one team from each pool. The draw was conducted under the following restrictions:
No more than two teams from the same Regular Season group can be placed in the same Top 16 group.
No more than two teams from the same country can be placed in the same Top 16 group.
If there is a conflict between these two restrictions, (1) will receive priority.
Another draw was held to determine the order of fixtures. In cases of two teams from the same city in the Top 16 (Panathinaikos and Olympiacos, Efes Pilsen and Ülker) they were scheduled so that every week only one team would be at home.
Key to colors
Top two places in each group advance to quarterfinals
Eliminated from contention
Teams in bold type advanced to the quarterfinals.
Group D
Main article: Euroleague 2004-05 Top 16 Group D
Team
Pld
W
L
PF
PA
Diff
1.
Maccabi Tel Aviv
6
6
0
513
427
+86
2.
Ülkerspor
6
3
3
434
469
-35
3.
Montepaschi Siena
6
2
4
470
462
+8
4.
Cibona Zagreb
6
1
5
430
489
?59
Group E
Main article: Euroleague 2004-05 Top 16 Group E
Team
Pld
W
L
PF
PA
Diff
1.
CSKA Moscow
6
5
1
515
450
+65
2.
Scavolini Pesaro
6
3
3
467
492
-25
3.
FC Barcelona
6
2
4
463
478
?15
4.
Real Madrid
6
2
4
477
502
?25
Group F
Main article: Euroleague 2004-05 Top 16 Group F
Team
Pld
W
L
PF
PA
Diff
1.
Panathinaikos Athens
6
4
2
480
450
+30
2.
TAU Cerámica
6
4
2
526
483
+43
3.
Climamio Bologna
6
4
2
471
479
?8
4.
Žalgiris Kaunas
6
0
6
457
522
?65
Group G
Main article: Euroleague 2004-05 Top 16 Group G
Team
Pld
W
L
PF
PA
Diff
1.
Benetton Treviso
6
4
2
447
385
+62
2.
Efes Pilsen
6
4
2
424
377
+47
3.
AEK Athens
6
4
2
436
427
+9
4.
Prokom Trefl Sopot
6
0
6
387
505
?118
Quarterfinals
Main article: Euroleague 2004-05 quarterfinals
Each quarterfinal was a best-of-three series between a first-place team in the Top 16 and a second-place team from a different group, with the first-place team receiving home advantage.
The Piano Sonata No. 29 ”Sonata Etere” Op. 129 by Geirr Tveitt is Tveitt’s only surviving piano sonata. The piece, though met with disdain by critics upon its publication in the early 1950s, has attained a prominent place among Norwegian piano sonatas.
Sonata Etere is characterized by bimodal/bitonal effects, fixed, continually varied rhythmic patterns, and shifts of accent. The work takes approximately 30 minutes to perform.
Contents
1Movements
1.1I. In Cerca Di
1.2II. Tono Etereo in Variazoni
1.3III. Tempo di Pulsazione
2Source
Movements
This work has three movements:
In Cerca Di - Moderato
Tono Etereo in Variazoni - Tranquilo ma deciso
Tempo di Pulsazione
The sonata makes do with only two main themes, designated In Cerca Di (In search of, henceforth referred to as the first theme) and Tono Etereo (ethereal tune, henceforth referred to as the second theme) Both the themes of the work are introduced in the first movement.
I. In Cerca Di
Measures 1-21 introduce the first theme. Subsequently, the second theme initiates a developmental exposition in which the two themes are frequently juxtaposed. The impression one gets from the collective development of the themes is one of simultaneous unity and duality: the two themes act as one, but are in opposition to each other.
The developmental nature of this exposition is similar to traditional sonata procedure. There is a marked difference, however, in that the themes themselves retain their original form, rather than being chopped up into pieces as they would be in, say, a sonata by Beethoven. As developmental tools go, more emphasis is placed on alternating rhythmic patterns and shifts of key and accent.
In measure 212 we reach a recapitulation. This section of the piece is an altered repeat of the beginning of the exposition. It retains many of the basic elements of the exposition but many facets, such as key, are changed. The recapitulation is broken off in measure 263, and leads to a coda: the first theme builds to a sonorous climax, and strains of the second theme close the movement.
II. Tono Etereo in Variazoni
This movement consists of 19 distinctive sections:
Tranquilo ma decico
-
-
Viace e con allegra
Moderato
Andante
Piu lento
-
Molto vivace
Allegro molto
Allegretto
Piu moderato
Andante tranquilo
Cosa piu mosso e ben marcato
- (the first theme is brought back here)
Andante (reprise of #1)
Poco moderato (juxtaposition of the first and second theme)
Flebile
Tempo I.
Most of the sections are variations on the second theme, but the movement breaks with traditional variations procedure by section 15 - from that point on the first theme is brought back in and the two themes undergo a common development which might remind one of the first movement.
III. Tempo di Pulsazione
This movement is a wild, ominous dance based on the first theme. The second theme does not feature here. This movement has a form indetical to that of the first movement.
Source
This article containts material from Young Composers released under the GNU Free Documentation License
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CIA activities in the Near East, North Africa, South and Southwest Asia
(Redirected from CIA Activities by Region: Near East, North Africa, South and Southwest Asia)
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Main article: Central Intelligence Agency
This article deals with activities of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency in the areas that are commonly called the “Middle East”, but more precisely cover North Africa, the Near/Middle East, and South and Southwest Asia.
Contents
1North Africa
1.1Regional information
1.1.11966 National Intelligence Estimate on the Maghreb
1.1.21972 FRUS summary
2Middle East
3Arabian Peninsula
4The Levant
5South and Southwest Asia
6South Asia
7References
North Africa
Main article: CIA activities in Algeria
Main article: CIA activities in Libya
Main article: CIA activities in Morocco
Main article: CIA activities in Tunisia
Regional information
1966 National Intelligence Estimate on the Maghreb
This NIE states as its goal, “To examine and assess trends and problems of the individual Maghreb states and of the area as a whole over the next two or three years.” It continues “The three Maghreb states share a certain sense of identity, but this tends to be overshadowed by the differences between them. Some modest forms of economic cooperation are developing, but over the next few years nothing approaching economic integration or political unity is in sight.” See the individual countries for details on the estimates pertaining directly to them.
“France will continue to be the single most important foreign influence in the Maghreb. The cultural link is likely to persist for some time, and France is the principal trading partner of each of the three countries. Algeria will continue to be the most favored by French subsidies and other economic aid, though throughout the area these will decrease over the longer term. None of the Maghreb countries is likely to become closely involved in the affairs of the Eastern Arab or sub-Saharan African states.”
“Both Morocco and Tunisia have border disputes with Algeria, and both fear that Algeria may try to dominate North Africa. Algeria, on the other hand, fears that Morocco and Tunisia, backed by Western powers, might attempt to encircle it. These attitudes have contributed to a North African arms race, with Algeria receiving large amounts of Soviet arms, and Morocco and Tunisia pressing for extensive military aid from Western powers, particularly the US. Algeria’s military capabilities are now greater than those of Morocco and Tunisia combined, and we believe Algeria would seek additional Soviet arms if a major build-up of Moroccan or Tunisian forces occurred.
“Despite the tensions among the Maghreb states, none is likely to mount a deliberate major armed attack against a neighbor during the period of this estimate. Limited border conflicts may occur, but they would probably be localized and of short duration.”
1972 FRUS summary
“Early in President Richard Nixon’s first term, officials monitoring U.S.-North African relations had grounds for some satisfaction. U.S. ties with Morocco, Tunisia, and Libya were firm. Although Algeria had not yet resumed diplomatic relations broken during the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, its economic links with the United States were expanding. Yet for all North African governments, friendly or otherwise, the Arab-Israeli issue complicated relations with Washington. The conflict was a major factor in continuing Algerian resistance to reestablishing formal ties with Washington. In Libya, a military junta, pledging internal reform and espousing Arab nationalism and the Palestinian cause, overthrew the unpopular pro-western monarchy in September 1969. Thereafter, the administration’s concern over Israeli sensibilities influenced its decision not to fulfill its aircraft contract with the Libyan government, to the detriment of U.S.-Libyan relations. In Morocco, Washington was allied with King Hassan, partly for his “moderate” stand on issues like the Arab-Israeli question. Yet as Hassan moved Morocco towardsmore representative government, he warned that Morocco’s firm support for the United States could change. Even Tunisia, a staunch U.S. ally, pushed Washington for a more energetic pursuit of Middle East peace, but was disappointed.
“The challenge for the North African states was to forge beneficial relations with the United States, the USSR, and France, while still maintaining their independence. Washington’s support of Israel, however, strained North African-U.S. relations. Regional governments pressed the United States to resolve the Middle East crisis and attempted to defuse the issue themselves. In 1969, Morocco hosted two conferences, one Islamic and one Arab, in an attempt to seize the initiative on the Middle East from Arab “radicals” and bolster its fellow “moderates.” Arab nationalists took heart from the Libyan coup in September 1969, and it prompted U.S. officials to reexamine trends and options in North Africa in January 1970.
“U.S. analysts concluded that Algeria and Morocco were likely to remain politically stable in the near future, in the latter case due to King Hassan’s tight grip on power. However, in Tunisia, where the ailing President Bourguiba was likely to step down, and Libya, where an inexperienced military junta ruled, the reports predicted political turmoil. Still, without a major Arab-Israel war or western disengagement, analysts saw no significant likelihood of Soviet dominance of the area. The National Security Council (NSC) Interdepartmental Group agreed in 1970 that, to maintain its regional interests, the United States should continue an active relationship with all North African governments, but also welcome a Western European presence. Since U.S. influence was limited by Washington’s close identification with Israel, Western Europe, particularly France, could provide the counterpoise to the Soviets in North Africa. THE END
Middle East
Main article: CIA activities in Iran
Main article: CIA activities in Iraq
Main article: CIA activities in Turkey
Arabian Peninsula
Main article: CIA activities in Yemen
The Levant
Main article: CIA activities in Israel
Main article: CIA activities in Jordan
Main article: CIA activities in Syria
South and Southwest Asia
Main article: CIA activities in Burma
South Asia
Main article: CIA activities in Afghanistan
Main article: CIA activities in India
Main article: CIA activities in Pakistan
Main article: CIA activities in Sri Lanka
References
^National Intelligence Estimate 60-66: The Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia), Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964-1968, Volume XXIV, Africa, 5 May 1966, FRUS-XXIV-1
^“Summary”, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976, Volume E-5, Part 2, Documents on Africa, 1969-1972, http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/e5part2/92738.htm
v•d•e
CIA activities in the Near East, North Africa, South and Southwest Asia
Algeria · Libya · Morocco · Tunisia · Iran · Iraq · Turkey · Yemen · Israel · Jordan · Syria · Afghanistan · India · Pakistan · Sri Lanka · Burma
v•d•e
Central Intelligence Agency of the United States
Geographic activities
the Americas · Africa · Asia/Pacific ·Near East, North Africa, South and Southwest Asia · Russia and Europe
Transnational activities
Terrorism · Arms control, WMD, and proliferation · Crime and illicit drug trade · Health and economy · Human rights · Influence on public opinion
Divisions
Directorate of Science & Technology · National Clandestine Service · Special Activities Division
Official reports by the US Government on the CIA
Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIA_activities_in_the_Near_East,_North_Africa,_South_and_Southwest_Asia”
Categories: CIA activities in the Near East, North Africa, South and Southwest Asia
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This page was last modified on 9 December 2009 at 14:44.
HMS Beaver
HMS Hecate
HMS Plumper
HMS Zebra
HMS Eclipse
HMS Sultan
HMS Pearl
HMS Wolverene
Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet
Awards
GCB
Admiral Sir Anthony Hiley Hoskins GCB (1828-1901), was a British naval officer who was First Naval Lord from 1891 to 1893.
Naval career
Hoskins entered the Royal Navy in 1842. From 1860 to 1861 he served on the Pacific Station as captain of HMS Hecate and HMS Plumper. After commanding HMS Zebra in African waters, he commanded HMS Eclipse on the North American Station. Hoskins was senior officer of the Bahamas Division until late in 1870, when he was transferred to the Barbados Division. He was made a lord commissioner of the Admiralty in 1880 and was Commander-in-Chief of the Mediterranean Fleet in 1889. From 1891, he became First Naval Lord.
References
Service record
Military offices
Preceded by Sir Richard Vesey Hamilton
First Naval Lord
1891—1893
Succeeded by Sir Frederick Richards
v•d•e
First Sea Lords of the Royal Navy
Admiral of the Fleet
The Earl Howe · Sir Peter Parker · Prince William, Duke of Clarence
First Naval Lords (1828–1904)
Sir George Cockburn · Sir Thomas Hardy · The Hon. George Dundas · Charles Adam · Sir George Cockburn · Sir Charles Adam · Sir George Cockburn · Sir William Parker ·Sir Charles Adam · James Dundas · The Hon. Maurice Berkeley · Hyde Parker · The Hon. Maurice Berkeley · The Hon. Sir Richard Dundas · William Martin ·The Hon. Sir Richard Dundas · The Hon. Sir Frederick Grey · Sir Alexander Milne · Sir Sydney Dacres · Sir Alexander Milne · Sir Hastings Yelverton · George Wellesley ·Sir Astley Key · Sir Arthur Hood · Lord John Hay · Sir Arthur Hood · Sir Richard Hamilton ·Sir Anthony Hoskins · Sir Frederick Richards · Lord Walter Kerr
First Sea Lords (1904–present)
Sir John Fisher · Sir Arthur Wilson ·Sir Francis Bridgeman · Prince Louis of Battenberg · The Lord Fisher · Sir Henry Jackson ·Sir John Jellicoe · Sir Rosslyn Wemyss · The Earl Beatty · Sir Charles Madden, Bt · Sir Frederick Field · The Lord Chatfield · Sir Roger Backhouse · Sir Dudley Pound · The Lord Cunningham of Hyndhope · Sir John Cunningham · The Lord Fraser of North Cape · Sir Rhoderick McGrigor · The Earl Mountbatten of Burma · Sir Charles Lambe · Sir Caspar John · Sir David Luce · Sir Varyl Begg · Sir Michael Le Fanu · Sir Peter Hill-Norton · Sir Michael Pollock · Sir Edward Ashmore · Sir Terence Lewin · Sir Henry Leach · Sir John Fieldhouse · Sir William Staveley · Sir Julian Oswald · Sir Benjamin Bathurst · Sir Jock Slater · Sir Michael Boyce · Sir Nigel Essenhigh · Sir Alan West · Sir Jonathon Band · Sir Mark Stanhope
This biographical article related to the Royal Navy is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v•d•e
Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Hoskins”
Categories: First Sea Lords | Lords of the Admiralty | Royal Navy admirals | 1828 births | 1901 deaths | Royal Navy personnel stubs
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Who Were the British? is a six-part Television Series made by Anglia Television, and written and presented by Dr Brian Hope-Taylor, focusing upon the early history and origins of Britain. It was shown on ITV in a late-night slot, with starting times varying between 10:40pm and 11:20pm.
Episode Guide
1. The Conquerors (TX: 20 June 1966)
The Roman invasion of Britain by Julius Caesar and Claudius. The tribes living in Britain at the time may have been barbarians but they were not savages.
2. The Investigators (TX: 27 June 1966)
How archaeological excavation is done and what it tells us. Shows excavations at Dunbar and Maiden Castle.
3. The Immigrants (TX: 4 July 1966)
The origins of The Ancient Britons and their Celtic connections. The use of flint and bronze. Reconstruction of an Iron Age settlement. Sites visited include Grimes Graves; Skara Brae, Orkney.
4. The Believers (TX: 11 July 1966)
The beliefs of the Ancient British and the ritual element in their lives. Tollund Man, Denmark. Sites visited include Maeshowe, Orkney; West Kennet, Silbury Hill; Stonehenge; Avebury.
5. The Builders (TX: 18 July 1966)
The lasting influence of the Romans - the building of roads, towns, and Hadrian’s Wall.
6. The Inheritors TX: 25 July 1966)
The Roman legacy in Britain -Bath, Lullingstone villa.
The series received two repeat runs on ITV: 5 April 1967 - 10 May 1967 and 27 August 1971 - 1 October 1971 respectively.
Production Credits
Director: Forbes Taylor
Producer: Peter Hunt
Presenter: Brian Hope-Taylor
Contributor: Glyn Daniel
Director of photography: Ian Craig
Film editor: Paul Shortall
Sound recordists: Charles Earl, Roy Charman
Sound editor: Pat Holmes
Designer: Peter Farman
Drawings: Alan Sorrell
Availability today
The entire series can viewed for educational purposes through the online academic archive, Film and Sound Online - within the Anglia Television Library collection. This archive is available to teachers and students in UK Further and Higher Education institutions possessing Athens accounts.
Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who_Were_the_British%3F”
Categories: British television miniseries | ITV television programmesHidden categories: Articles lacking sources from January 2007 | All articles lacking sources | Orphaned articles from November 2009 | All orphaned articles
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GCM mode (Galois/Counter Mode) is a mode of operation for symmetric key cryptographic block ciphers. It is an authenticated encryption algorithm designed to provide both authentication and privacy. GCM mode is defined for block ciphers with a block size of 128 bits. GMAC is an authentication-only variant of the GCM.
Contents
1Encryption and authentication
2Use
3Performance
4Tag size
5Patents
6See also
7External links
8Notes
9References
Encryption and authentication
GCM encryption operation
As the name suggests, GCM mode combines the well-known counter mode of encryption with the new Galois mode of authentication. The key feature is that the Galois field multiplication used for authentication can be easily computed in parallel thus permitting higher throughput than the authentication algorithms that use chaining modes, like CBC. The GF(2128) field used is defined by the polynomial
The GHASH function is defined by
where the inputs A and C, and the variables Xi for i = 0, …, m + n + 1 are defined as
GCM mode was designed by John Viega and David A. McGrew as an improvement to Carter-Wegman Counter CWC mode.
On November 26, 2007 NIST announced the release of NIST Special Publication 800-38D Recommendation for Block Cipher Modes of Operation: Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) and GMAC making GCM and GMAC official standards.
Use
GCM mode is used in the IEEE 802.1AE (MACsec) Ethernet security, ANSI (INCITS) Fibre Channel Security Protocols (FC-SP), IEEE P1619.1 tape storage, IETF IPsec standards and SSH .
Performance
GCM requires one block cipher operation and one 128-bit multiplication in the Galois field per each block (128 bit) of encrypted and authenticated data.
Tag size
The bit-length of the tag, denoted t, is a security parameter. In general, t may be any one of the following five values: 128, 120, 112, 104, or 96. For certain applications, t may be 64 or 32, but the use of these two tag lengths constrains the length of the input data and the lifetime of the key. Appendix C in NIST SP 800-38D provides guidance for these constraints (for example, if t = 32 and the maximal packet size is 210 bytes, then the authentication decryption function should be invoked no more than 211 times; if t = 64 and the maximal packet size is 215 bytes, then the authentication decryption function should be invoked no more than 232 times).
As with any tag-based authentication mechanism, if the adversary chooses a t-bit tag at random, it is expected to be correct for given data with probability 2?t. With GCM, however, an adversary can choose tags that increase this probability, proportional to the total length of the ciphertext and additional authenticated data (AAD). Consequently, GCM is not well-suited for use with short tag lengths or very long messages.
In particular, if n denotes the total number of blocks in the encoding (the input to the GHASH function), then there is a method of constructing a targeted ciphertext forgery that is expected to succeed with a probability of approximately n2?t. Moreover, each successful forgery in this attack increases the probability that subsequent targeted forgeries will succeed, and leaks information about the hash subkey, H. Eventually, H may be compromised entirely and the authentication assurance is completely lost.
Independent of this attack, an adversary may attempt to systematically guess many different tags for a given input to authenticated decryption, and thereby increase the probability that one (or more) of them, eventually, will be accepted as valid. For this reason, the system or protocol that implements GCM should monitor and, if necessary, limit the number of unsuccessful verification attempts for each key.
Patents
According to the authors’ statement, GCM is unencumbered by patents.
NIST Special Publication SP800-38D defining GCM and GMAC
RFC 4106: The Use of Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) in IPsec Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
RFC 4543: The Use of Galois Message Authentication Code (GMAC) in IPsec ESP and AH
IEEE 802.1AE - Media Access Control (MAC) Security
IEEE Security in Storage Working Group developed the P1619.1 standard
INCITS T11 Technical Committee works on Fibre Channel - Security Protocols project.
Internet-Draft for GCM in Secure RTP (SRTP)
Notes
^ David A. McGrew and John Viega, “The Galois/Counter Mode of Operation (GCM)”, page 5, 2005
^ RFC 4106 The Use of Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) in IPsec Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)
^ RFC 4543 The Use of Galois Message Authentication Code (GMAC) in IPsec ESP and AH
^ RFC 5647 AES Galois Counter Mode for the Secure Shell Transport Layer Protocol
^ Niels Ferguson, Authentication Weaknesses in GCM, 2005-05-20
References
NIST Special Publication 800-38D (November, 2007) Recommendation for Block Cipher Modes of Operation: Galois/Counter Mode (GCM) for Confidentiality and Authentication
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Block ciphers
Common algorithms
AES · Blowfish · DES · Triple DES · Serpent · Twofish
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Oak Grove Butterfield Stage Station
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Oak Grove Butterfield Stage Station
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
U.S. National Historic Landmark
Oak Grove Butterfield Stage Station
Butterfield Stage Station is located in California” src=”http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/California_Locator_Map_with_US.PNG/235px-California_Locator_Map_with_US.PNG” width=”235″ height=”266″ />
Oak Grove Butterfield Stage Station is located in Warner Springs, California and is the only surviving station on the Butterfield Overland Mail stagecoach line. It is a well-preserved one-story adobe building with oak trees.
During the Civil War the station was the location of Camp Wright, a Union Army outpost established to protect the route to Fort Yuma and intercept secessionist sympathizers traveling to the east to join the Confederate Army. A detachment of California Volunteer cavalry and infantry first established Camp Wright at Warner’s Ranch, in October 1861. The cold and windy conditions in the higher altitude of the exposed San Jose Valley made the commander change location to the more sheltered Oak Grove location in November.
At about the same time Dan Showalter’s party of secessionists were attempting to avoid the post and make their way across the desert to join the Confederate Army in Texas. They were pursued from Temecula by a 1st Regiment California Volunteer Cavalry patrol from the Camp, intercepted in the hills west of the San Jose Valley (site of Warner’s Ranch) with the support of a 1st California Infantry detachment from the camp, and captured without shots being fired November 20-29, 1861. After being imprisoned at Fort Yuma, Showalter and the others were released upon swearing loyalty to the Union. They later made their way to the Confederacy. For a short time in March 1862 Camp Wright was the headquarters of the 5th Regiment California Volunteer Infantry before it moved on. Used for the rest of the war as a transit camp for troops moving along the road to and from New Mexico and Arizona Territory, the camp was abandoned in 1866.
It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1961. The location of another nearby station at Warner’s Ranch, is also a National Historic Landmark.
Oak Grove is located 13 miles northwest of Warner Springs on State Route 79.
References
^“National Register Information System”. National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. 2007-01-23. http://www.nr.nps.gov/.
^ ab“Oak Grove Butterfield Stage Station”. National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=127&ResourceType=Building. Retrieved 2007-11-18.
^ Colonel Herbert M. Hart, USMC (retired), Historic California Posts: Camp Wright from Pioneer Forts of the Far West, published in 1965, The California State Military Museum
^ Bill Virden, THE AFFAIR AT MINTER’S RANCH, The Journal of San Diego History, SAN DIEGO HISTORICAL SOCIETY QUARTERLY, April 1961, Volume 7, Number 2
^Records of California men in the war of the rebellion 1861 to 1867, By California. Adjutant General’s Office, SACRAMENTO: State Office, J. D. Young, Supt. State Printing. 1890. p.672
^ Patricia Heintzelman and Charles Snell (1975) National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: Oak Grove Butterfield Station, National Park Service and Accompanying 3 photos, exterior, from 1954, 1975 and undated.
External links
Early History of the California Coast, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary
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Keeper of the Register · History of the National Register of Historic Places · Property types · Historic district · Contributing property
List of entries
National Park Service · National Historic Landmarks · National Battlefields · National Historic Sites · National Historical Parks · National Memorials · National Monuments
This article about a property in California on the National Register of Historic Places is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. v•d•e
Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oak_Grove_Butterfield_Stage_Station”
Categories: National Historic Landmarks in California | San Diego County, California | Former United States Army facilities | California Registered Historic Place stubs
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Simeon Borden (January 29, 1798 - October 28, 1856) was an American inventor, engineer, and noted surveyor.
Borden was born in Freetown, now Fall River, Massachusetts, to Simeon and Amey Briggs Borden; his younger brother Nathaniel Briggs Borden later became a United States Representative. He received a limited education at Tiverton, Rhode Island, and studied geometry and applied mathematics on his own. He became a woodworker and metalworker, practiced surveying, and in 1828 headed up a machine-shop in Fall River.
In 1830 Bordon invented a new apparatus for accurately measuring the base line for the upcoming Massachusetts’ Trigonometrical Survey. It was 50 feet long, enclosed in a tube, and used with four compound microscopes. The tube and microscopes were mounted on trestles, and adjustable to any direction.
Borden’s equipment was judged to be more accurate and convenient than any instrument available, and thus he assisted in measuring the Massachusetts base line (now known as the Borden Base Line) to a remarkable accuracy in 1831, and afterwards led the triangulation of the entire state from 1834-1841 as Superintendent of the Survey. He described this first geodetic survey in America in the ninth volume of the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society.
Borden surveyed and marked the line between Rhode Island and Massachusetts after their disputed boundary had been tried before the United States Supreme Court in 1844. He then turned his attention to railroads and telegraphs. In 1851 he strung a telegraph wire, suspended on masts 220 feet high, across the Hudson River from the Palisades to Fort Washington, a distance of more than a mile.
Borden died in Fall River in 1856.
Most, if not all, of the original field notes from Borden’s trigonometric survey of Massachusetts are in the possession of the Massachusetts Association of Land Surveyors and Civil Engineers, Inc., One Walnut Street, Boston, MA.
Selected works
“An Account of the Trigonometrical Survey of Massachusetts”, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Volume 9, 18, Part I.
A System of Useful Formulae: adapted to the practical operations of locating and constructing Railroads, Boston : Charles C. Little & James Brown, 1851.
References
“Simeon Borden”, Appleton’s Cyclopedia of American Biography, edited by James Grant Wilson, John Fiske and Stanley L. Klos, New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1887-1889.
Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simeon_Borden”
Categories: American civil engineers | People from Fall River, Massachusetts
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Finnic mythology is the mythologies of the Finnic peoples, such as the Volga Finns, Baltic Finns, Permians, and Sami.
The mythologies of the Finno-Lappic speakers have some common aspects; the Sami people are deeply shamanistic and these traits are present also in Finnish-Karelian mythology. Baltic Finnic mythologies are also related to shamanism in Siberia on one hand, and to Indo-European Baltic and Germanic mythologies on the other. Especially the mythologies of the Baltic Finns were directly influenced by their Indo-European neighbors, the Scandinavians, the Slavs and the Baltic peoples.
The Baltic Finns share some common religious and historical traditions were transmitted orally: the art of ancient rune singing, estimated to be 2500–3000 years old.
Shamanism has been important influence on the mythologies of most (but not all)of the Finnic peoples, especially those that lived by hunting. One aspect in common to many of the Finnic peoples is the myth that the world is created from an egg. Another central aspect of these mythologies has been astronomy, that includes several Milky Way myths and ideas about the existence of the World tree or pillar while the star formations were thought to represent animal spirits. Similar myths are also found from many neighbouring non-Finnic peoples; for example the Scandinavians believed in the world tree. The myth of world egg is almost universal.
The Sami People, who were primarily hunters, were animistic; they worshipped spirits called the haldi who watched over nature and existed in many places. In the Sami animal cult Bear was considered to be the animal lord. This is considered as a kind of totemism. The forest god Laib olmai ruled over all forest animals. Some Sami had a thunder god called Tiermes, or Horagalles and a sky-ruling god Radien or Vearalden. The Sami symbol of the world tree or pillar was marked by a stytto.
Volga-Finnic, Baltic-Finnic and Permic peoples became agricultural long before the historic times and developed farming-based mythologies. The Udmurt Permians had a sky god, a farmer and weather deity Inmar, the Erzya and Moksha Mordvins worshiped the earth mother responsible for harvest, Mastor-Ava.
Amongst the Finno-Permic speakers there was a notable similarity between the sky gods; including Ukko of Finnish mythology, “Jumal” or “Taevataat” (Sky Grandfather) in Estonian mythology and “Jumo” in Mari mythology. The Mari language word “Jumo” and Baltic-Finnic words “Jumal” and “Jumala” are also etymologically related. Another possible similarity between the sky gods is that Finnish Ilmarinen, a mythical smith-hero, might originally be a sky god, distantly related to Udmurtian Inmar. There is also a notable relation between the sky gods of the speakers of Finno-Permic, Scandinavian, Slavic and Baltic languages.
Contents
1Finnish
2Estonian
3Sami
4Mordvin
5See also
6References and Notes
7External links
Finnish
Further information: Finnish paganism and Finnish mythology
The most comprehensive collection of Baltic-Finnic myths and legends are preserved in the oral epic poetry of Karelia and Ingermanland, parts of which were compiled in the first half of the 19th century by Elias Lönnrot into the national epic of Finland, Kalevala, on the basis of material collected by himself or other scholars. Originally, the Finnish-Karelian epic poetry did not constitute an epic whole but was divided into several unconnected poems or “mini-eposes”.
The Kalevala begins with a creation myth where a duck lays eggs by landing on the raised knee of the virgin Mother of the Waters. The earth is formed and Väinämöinen and Ilmarinen were born. Other central figures of the epic include Lemminkäinen, compiled by Lönnrot from several heroes of the oral poetry, and the female antagonist Louhi. Lönnrot has built the story around the forging and the conquest of the Sampo, variantly interpreted as a world pillar or tree, a magic mill, a compass or astrolabe, or a chest containing a treasure.
J. R. R. Tolkien has highlighted the importance of Kalevala as a source for his legendarium including The Lord of the Rings.
Although the gradual influence of surrounding cultures raised the significance of the sky-god Jumala in a monolatristic manner, the father god “Ukko” (Old Man) was originally just a nature spirit like all the others. The most sacred animal, whose real name was never uttered out loud, was the bear. The bear was seen as the embodiment of the forefathers, and for this reason it was called by many euphemisms: “mesikämmen” (”mead-paw”), “otso” (”wide brow”), “kontio” (”dweller of the land”).
Estonian
Main article: Estonian mythology
Estonian mythology survives as a complexity of myths from the folk heritage and literary mythology.
Wulfstan of Hedeby reported to Alfred the Great (971-899) concerning Baltic burial customs. These included holding the dead unburied in the house of their relatives and friends, who held a wake of drinking until the day of the cremation. The rite of cremation is thought to be related to the belief that it was speeding up the dead’s journey to the afterlife and the dead would not become earthbound spirits, which were thought to be dangerous to the living. Henry of Livonia records that even in 1222 the Estonians disinterred Christian dead and burned them.
Henry of Livonia describes in his chronicle a legend from Virumaa that speaks of a mountain and a forest where the god Tharapita was born and from where he flew to Oesel. It has been speculated that the route of Taarapita’s flight may correspond to the fall of the Kaali meteorite. During the battles in the Livonian Crusade, Oeselians, the proto-Estonians from Saaremaa were described by the chronicle to cry out, rejoicing in Tharapita.
The solstice festival of Midsummer celebrating the sun through solar symbols of bonfires, the tradition alive until the present day, and numerous Estonian nature spirits: the sacred oak and linden have been described by Balthasar Russow in 1578.
Some traces of the oldest authentic myths may have survived in runic songs. There is a song about the birth of the world – a bird lays three eggs and starts to lay out the nestlings – one becomes the Sun, one becomes the Moon, and one becomes the Earth. Other Finnic peoples have myths in which the world emerged from a single egg.
Estonian legends about giants (Kalevipoeg, Suur Tõll, Leiger) may be a reflection of Germanic (especially Scandinavian) influences. There are numerous legends interpreting various natural objects and features as traces of Kalevipoeg’s deeds. The giant has merged together with Christian Devil, giving birth to a new character – Vanapagan and his farm hand Kaval-Ants (Crafty Hans).
During the era of Estonian national awakening the elements in the literary mythology were quickly and readily incorporated into contemporary popular culture through media and school textbooks. It can be difficult to tell how much of Estonian mythology as we know it today was actually constructed in the 19th and early 20th century. One should also note that some constructed elements are loans from Finnish mythology and may date back to the common Baltic-Finnic heritage. According to Endel Nirk “the so called pseudo-mythology has played a greater role in Estonian national movement and the people’s life than for some other people their proven authentic mythology.”
Sami
Main article: Sami religion
The Sami, who were hunters rather than farmers, worshiped animal spirits like the bear as animal lord. Other animal spirits included the haldi who watched over the nature. Some Sami people had a thunder god called Tiermes, or sometimes called Horagalles. Another sky-ruling god was called Radien or Vearalden. The symbol of the world tree or pillar similar in Finnish mythology that reached up to the North star was marked by a stytto.
The forest-god of the Sami, Laib olmai ruled over all forest animals, which were regarded as his herds, and luck in hunting, or the reverse, depended on his will. His favour was so important that, according to one author, they made prayers and offerings to him every morning and evening.
The clan and family gods of the Sami were known in different parts of the country under the name of Seita or Storjunkare. Each family or clan had its Storjunkare standing in the district where they lived. Every Sami settlement had its seita, which had no regular shape, and might consist of smooth or odd-looking stones picked out of a stream, of a small pile of stones, of a tree- stump, or of a simple post. They were set up on a high, prominent place, or in a rich meadow. Under and round such seitas they strewed green fir twigs in winter, and in summer green leaves. The seitas protected their worshippers against misfortune to the herds of reindeer, gave instructions how to catch wild reindeer, and in return offerings were made to them of the hides and hoofs of reindeer, calves, and sometimes of a dog. But a private person might also have his own seita, to whom he prayed for good luck. The Storjunkare are described sometimes as stones, having some likeness to a man or an animal, that were set up on a mountain top, or in a cave, or near rivers and lakes. Honor was done to them by spreading fresh twigs under them in winter, and in summer leaves or grass. The Storjunkare had power over all animals, fish, and birds, and gave luck to those that hunted or fished for them. Reindeer were offered up to them, and every clan and family had its own hill of sacrifice.
Knowledge of the Sami religion is primarily based on archeological remains and written sources from missionary work in northern Scandinavia during the Middle Ages and up to the early 18th century. Some objects date back to 800-1300s, and the sites are usually termed “Samic metal depots”, due to the large findings of metal objects. The objects are mostly coins from Germany and England, and parts from weapons (e.g. arrow-heads). Some minor findings consists of horn from reindeer.
The religion was a form of shamanism, practiced by the noaide for the most miscellaneous problems. The instrument used for ceremonies was the rune drum, but even a domestic flute, the so-called “fadno”, was used. The traditional Sami chant, joik, was used in ceremonies where the noaide fell in trance and left his or her body to transcend into the divine world of “saivo”, where he or she could negotiate with gods, spirits and forefathers to improve the fate of the group he or she represented. As with other circumpolar religions, the Sami religion contains a hunting ceremony especially for bears, known as the bear cult. Elements of Norse mythology, as well as Christian ideas, are found in the later years of Sami religion.
Mordvin
Although sharing some similarities, no common Mordvin mythology has emerged and therefore the Erza and Moksha mythologies are defined separately.
In Erzya mythology the superior deities were hatched from an egg. The mother of gods is called Ange Patiai, followed by the Sun God Chipaz who gave birth to Nishkepaz, to the earth god Mastoron kirdi and the wind god Varmanpaz. From the union of Chipaz and the Harvest Mother Norovava was born the god of the underworld Mastorpaz. The thunder god Pur’ginepaz was born from Niskende Teitert, the daughter of the mother of gods Ange Patiai. The creation of the Earth is followed by the creation of the Sun, the Moon, the humankind and the Erza. The man was created by god Chipaz who molded the humankind from clay while in another version of the legend the man is made from soil.
In Moksha mythology the Supreme God is called Viarde Skai. According to the legends the creation of the world went through several stages: first the Devil moistened the building material in his mouth and spit it out. The spat piece grew into a plain, which was modeled uneven by creating chasms and the mountains. The first humans created by Viarde Skai could live for 700–800 years and were giants of 99 archinnes. The underworld in Mokshan mythology was ruled by Mastoratia.
The Erzya and Moksha Mordvins worshiped the Earth goddess, the earth mother Mastor-Ava responsible for harvest. An epic poem based on Mordvin folktales, Mastorava, appeared in 1994.
See also
Book:Finnic Paganism
Books are collections of articles which can be downloaded or ordered in print.
Baltic mythology
Bear cult
Mastorava
Rock carvings at Alta
References and Notes
^Leeming, David Adams (2003). European Mythology. Oxford University Press. pp. 133–141 Finnic and Other Non-Indo-European Mythologies. ISBN 9780195143614. http://books.google.com/books?id=myMgj6gUWUEC&pg=PA133&dq.
^ abcde Leeming, pp. 135
^Pentikäinen, uha; Ritva Poom (1999). Kalevala Mythology. Indiana University Press. pp. 86 The origins of Balto-Finnic Rune Singing. ISBN 9780253213525. http://books.google.com/books?id=NwCDdSmFJPEC&pg=PA86.
^ Leeming, pp. 136
^ ab Pre- and Proto-historic Finns by Abercromby, pp. 161
^ ab A History of Pagan Europe, P. 181 ISBN 0415091365
^ Leeming, pp. 137
^Chance, Jane (2004). Tolkien and the Invention of Myth. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 9780813123011. http://books.google.com/books?id=8LLxZXqgJdwC&pg=PA295.
^ see Sutrop: (Lõugas 1996, Viires 1990)
^Sutrop, Urmas. . Electronic Journal of Folklore. http://haldjas.folklore.ee/Folklore/vol26/sutrop.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-26.
^Leach, Maria; Jerome Fried (1972). Funk & Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology, and Legend. Funk & Wagnalls. ISBN 9780308400900. http://books.google.com/books?q=%22The+sacred+oak+and+linden+were+mentioned+by+Russow+in+1578%22&btnG=Search+Books.
^Haas, Ain; Andres Peekna, Robert E. Walker. . Electronic Journal of Folklore. http://www.folklore.ee/folklore/vol23/echoes.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-26.
^ Nirk, Endel “Kreutwaldi rahvalaulutöötlustest 1840-ndail aastail”. Keel ja Kirjandus 1958, pp 589–599, 650–664.
^ Pre- and Proto-historic Finns by Abercromby, pp. 163-164
^Deviatkina, Tatiana (2001). “Some Aspects of Mordvin Mythology”. Folk Belief and Media Group of ELM. http://www.folklore.ee/Folklore/vol17/mordmyth.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-13.
Abercromby, John (1898). Pre- and Proto-historic Finns. D. Nutt. http://books.google.com/books?id=q5gCAAAAYAAJ&dq.
Herman Hofberg, “Lapparnas Hednatro”
Uno Holmberg, “Lapparnas religion”
Rafael Karsten, ” Samefolkets religion”
Edgar Reuteskiöld, ” De nordiska samernas religion”
Tatiana Deviatkina, Some Aspects of Mordvin Mythology, Folklore 17 (2001).
Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnic_mythology”
Categories: Estonian mythology | Finnish mythology | Sami gods | Uralic mythologyHidden categories: All articles with specifically-marked weasel-worded phrases | Articles with specifically-marked weasel-worded phrases from March 2009 | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from October 2008
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Royal Navy
First Sea Lords of the Royal Navy
